NIOSH-approved N95 respirators are critical supplies that should be reserved for healthcare workers and other medical first responders to prevent supply shortages. 2A and the subsample of large cities (kreisfreie Städte) in Fig. For example, people who interact with those who are deaf or hearing impaired may find that a face shield is better than a mask when communicating. Bien que les FAC puissent recevoir d’autres vaccins contre la COVID-19 approuvés par Santé Canada et venant d’autres fournisseurs au cours de l’année, le vaccin de Moderna est le seul actuellement disponible pour les FAC. The presence of free chlorine (also known as chlorine residual, free chlorine residual, residual chlorine) in drinking water indicates that: 1) a sufficient amount of chlorine was added initially to the water to inactivate the bacteria and some viruses that cause diarrheal disease; and, 2) the water is protected from recontamination during storage. Sousa-Pinto B, Fonte AP, Lopes AA, et al. As for the case of placebo-in-space tests, it is important for the validity of results that we do not observe significant treatment effects for Jena prior to the introduction of face masks on 6 April or its announcement on 30 March. The reduction in the daily growth rate of infections amounts to 14% only. C and D plot the estimated average treatment effects, that is, average reduction in the cumulative number of COVID-19 cases (black solid lines) over time joint with 90% confidence intervals (gray dashed lines) for the two samples. Plots are shown for donor regions with an acceptable pretreatment root-mean-square prediction error (RMSPE), that is, less than 10 times the RMSPE of Jena; dotted lines indicate the median (p50), 25th percentile (p25), and 75th percentile (p75) of pseudo-treatment effects. Le cadre sanitaire .....6 Le protocole en vigueur à compter du 1er février 2021 est -il applicable sur l’ensemble du PLF 2021: Les principales mesures entreprises face à la crise du Covid-19. One might conjecture that our estimation measures both the true effect of a face mask but also any other change in behavior (washing hands, limiting interactions, staying at home more, etc.) As face masks became mandatory at different points in time … Additionally, check whether any federal mask mandates apply to where you will be going. Davies A, Thompson KA, Giri K, Kafatos G, Walker J, Bennett A. Konda A, Prakash A, Moss GA, Schmoldt M, Grant GD, Guha S. Aydin O, Emon B, Cheng S, Hong L, Chamorro LP, Saif MTA. Of particular interest are those decrees that significantly differ with respect to their timing from those at the federal state level in Thuringia. We use data for 401 regions in Germany (municipal districts) to estimate the effect of this particular policy intervention on the development of registered infections with COVID-19. Masks may not be necessary when you and the person you are caring for are outside and away from others, or with other people who live in the same household. K.W. ; Please stay at home and do not travel if you have recently been diagnosed with, are currently experiencing symptoms of, or have been in close contact with someone who has COVID-19 in the past 10 days.. As Heinsberg is one of the German regions that was significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic during the Carnival season, one may expect that this leads to an overestimation of the effects of face masks. Work performed on or after September 15, 2020 is The first NUTS3 region that introduced mandatory face masks in Germany was Jena on 6 April. The timing of mandatory face mask wearing in German federal states (Top) and individual regions (Bottom). Arguments in favor of the high 70% stress that Jena introduced face masks before any other region did so. Implications of these requirements for our analysis are discussed in SI Appendix, section B and we apply a series of robustness tests to check if the requirements hold in our data settings (reported in Robustness Checks). We consider the timing of mandatory face covering as an exogenous event to the local population: Masks were imposed by local authorities and were not the outcome of some process in which the population was involved. (See SI Appendix, section A.1 for more background.). Taken together, over a period of 20 d, we observe an average reduction of 28.4 cases between treated and control regions in the context of urban areas. We also test for the sensitivity of the estimated treatment effects to changes in the set of time-constant predictors. They are sold online and through large retail stores. Yet, the cost of information campaigns should be taken into account. We simultaneously stress the need for further complementary analyses. The DiD estimator is particularly well-suited to estimate dynamic treatment effects in the context of limited information about the exact length of transmission lags before individual policy interventions show measurable effects (a detailed description is given in SI Appendix, section F). Six regions in Germany (municipal districts, equivalent to the European Union nomenclature of territorial units for statistics, NUTS, level 3 categorization) made face masks mandatory before their respective federal states. Protect yourself and others by making these 6 simple precautions your new habits: Clean your hands often. Six further regions made masks compulsory before the introduction at the federal state level. Online ISSN 1091-6490. Weights for individual control regions vary between 0 and 1, sum up to 1 over all control regions, and are determined on the basis of a minimum distance approach. In A, the black solid line measures the treatment effect for Jena. An attractive feature of the DiD approach is its flexibility in estimating dynamic treatment effects, that is, those that build up over time potentially determined by (unobserved) interventions starting at different time periods. The intuition of SCM estimation can briefly be described as follows (see ref. Similarly, “Synth March 15” (and so on) show the evolution of COVID-19 cases for a starting date of 15 March. Do not use NIOSH-approved N95 respirators that are meant for healthcare workers. Numerical solutions are computed in MATLAB. Relevant regions included foreign countries but also other German federal states, among which were Bavaria, Baden-Wurttemberg, and North-Rhine Westphalia. 1 Direction générale des Collectivités locales Questions réponses relatives à la prise en compte dans la fonction publique territoriale de l’évolution de l’épidémie de Covid-19 - Version mise à jour au 5 novembre 2020 - NB : les informations contenues dans la présente FAQ sont susceptibles d’évoluer en fonction des décisions prises au niveau national. S7 indicates that the largest effects occur for individuals above 60 y of age. SI Appendix, Table S4 shows summary statistics. The following categories of people are exempt from the requirement to wear a mask: Some masks work better than others to help slow the spread of the virus that causes COVID-19. Refs. Anthony Fauci, MD, told The Today Show last week that double-masking was “common sense”—and these disposable masks make it easy. Wearing face masks gradually became more common and more and more people started to adopt their usage even when it was not yet required. Number of confirmed infection cases of COVID-19 is increasing again in Japan. To explicitly test for a potential trend reversal in the development of COVID-19 cases prior to the introduction of face masks, we further run an alternative robustness test on the basis of incremental difference-in-difference (DiD) estimation. 8 that was recently extended by ref. As pointed out in ref. Hence, as of T + Dm, the number of infectious individuals falls faster, see “face masks Imask(t),” and the number of individuals ever infected rises less quickly, as visible when looking at Imaskever(t). Covid-19 : les nouvelles mesures pour faire face aux variants Les faits Fermeture des classes, double test, augmentation de la durée de l’isolement… (All analyses are undertaken in Stata. Some children 2 years and older, and people of any age with certain disabilities. Face masks against COVID-19: An evidence review. Do NOT put a plastic face shield (or a mask) on newborns or infants. Learn more about our COVID-19 response. This equation produces the numbers we report to quantify the effects of face masks. Supervise children who are wearing a mask while playing sports. In A, the treatment period starts on 6 April when face masks became mandatory in public transport and shops. As the results clearly show, treatment effects from public health measures in Jena in terms of a reduction in COVID-19 cases only become statistically significant roughly 2 wk after the introduction of face masks on 6 April. The temporal evolution of the average number of cumulative COVID-19 cases for treated regions and their corresponding synthetic control groups are shown in Fig. Les réponses à vos questions sur le coronavirus Covid-19. ↵††We analyze a measure that is introduced for the first time in this region. 21). The latter involves a set of predictor variables chosen by the researcher as to closely match the outcome of the treated region prior to the treatment (predictors used here are listed in SI Appendix, Table S4 and selected weights for control regions are displayed in SI Appendix, Table S5). The impact of face masks worn in public on the spread of COVID-19 has yet to be systematically analyzed. 2⇓⇓–5 and SI Appendix, section B for more background). The empirical results in Fig. We study the sensitivity of our estimates with respect to the length of the training and validation period before the start of the treatment. Looking at SI Appendix, Fig. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.13065920, https://www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.2015954117/-/DCSupplemental, Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY), https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/corona-maskenpflicht-103.html, https://www.jenaer-nachrichten.de/stadtleben/13069-jena-zeigt-maske-kampagne-f%C3%BCr-mundschutz-startet, https://www.macro.economics.uni-mainz.de/corona-blog/, https://npgeo-corona-npgeo-de.hub.arcgis.com/, Results: The Effects of Face Masks on the Spread of COVID-19, Opinion: Past is future for the era of COVID-19 research in the social sciences, Core Concept: Muography offers a new way to see inside a multitude of objects, Journal Club: Lab-cultured mouse embryos, grown for an extended period, offer a new window on fetal development, Exploring the length of human conversations, Mounted horseback riding in ancient China. This might also matter. Further single-unit treatment analyses are shown in SI Appendix, section D.1. The FDA recently approved a transparent pdf icon[186 KB, 3 Pages]external icon medical mask. Treatment effects are identified by comparing the development of outcomes in treated and control regions during the treatment period. We obtain a synthetic control group that closely follows the COVID-19 trend before the introduction of mandatory masks in Jena. If you wear glasses, find a mask that fits closely over your nose or has a nose wire to help reduce fogging. ↵‡‡Alternatively, we have also tested for pseudo-treatment effects in Jena over a period of 20 d before the introduction of face masks. The figure shows the average development of the cumulative number of COVID-19 cases for treated units (defined as all regions that introduced face masks on or before 22 April), for their synthetic control groups and estimated treatment effects. The European Council and the Council of the EU are served by a single administration, the General Secretariat of the Council (GSC). The goal of Canada's COVID-19 pandemic response and recovery is to minimize serious illness and overall deaths Footnote 58, while minimizing societal disruption as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. ↵**We follow the method proposed in ref. Masks are a simple barrier to help prevent your respiratory droplets from reaching others. 2 E and F.** The latter indicate the probability that the reduction in the number of COVID-19 cases was observed by chance given the distribution of pseudo-treatment effects in the other German regions (see ref. This drop is greatest, by more than 90%, for the age group 60 y and above. Finally, economic costs should be taken into account. Video news. Note the qualitative similarity between the yellow and purple curve here and the corresponding curves in Figs. 15. This technical report reviews the evidence that has been accumulated since the emergence of COVID-19, in addition to what has existed on this topic prior to the pandemic, and updates the ECDC opinion on the suitability of using face masks in the community published on 9 April 2020. We believe that the reduction in the daily growth rates of infections between 47% and 70% is our best estimate of the effects of face masks. Mobility data for federal states in SI Appendix, section C.6.2 show that federal states moved in a relatively coordinated way in this respect. The distribution of placebo effects is then compared with the treatment effect for the treated region. Eventually, face masks became mandatory in all federal states between 20 April and 29 April 2020 (see SI Appendix, section A for background). Fighting this disease is our joint responsibility. Dernières mises à jour We find statistically significant and sizeable support for the general perception that the public wearing of face masks in Jena strongly reduced the number of incidences. Copy link. The coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has severely affected Kazakhstan, located at the intersection of many transport corridors between East and West, North and South. Second, as described in Method and Data, Jena is a fairly representative region of Germany in terms of COVID-19 cases. For the full sample, this difference is estimated to be 0.13 percentage points (see SI Appendix, section D.2 for an overview of all measures and Method and Data for theoretical background). This perception stems mainly from the city of Jena. Bring your photos, docs, and videos anywhere and keep your files safe. S11B shows, there is no strong deviation from the path of the synthetic control group. While having a well-rounded academic background in history, art history and philology, Salmas chose to specialize in Egyptology for her doctoral studies and she completed her PhD in 2011 at Sorbonne University (Paris). Covid restriction rules introduced for schools last October meant senior pupils and their teachers had to wear face coverings in classrooms. 1B plots the estimated effect size when we define the start of the treatment period by the start of the campaign on 30 March. Average treatment effects for the introduction of face masks with multiple treated units. The hole in the material may allow your respiratory droplets to escape and reach others. Dans la mesure où l’entreprise de moins de 250 salariés remplirait cette condition ainsi que la condition de perte de chiffre d’affaires, elle serait éligible à l’exonération et l’aide au paiement créées par la Loi de Financement Rectificative 3. Edited by Andrea Rinaldo, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland, and approved November 10, 2020 (received for review July 28, 2020). While a detailed cost–benefit analysis is needed, we would expect that a comparison with other policy actions would speak in favor of face masks. As shown in SI Appendix, section C.7, the estimated trajectories for the respective synthetic control groups follow a very similar trend. Abkarian M, Mendez S, Xue N, Yang F, Stone HA. In data 2⇓⇓–5). The vertical dashed line (red color) indicates the start of the treatment period, which is allowed to vary by treated regions. All results are obtained by applying the synthetic control method. While we do not believe that this matters for Germany as rules for testing are homogenous across regions, this might play a bigger role for international comparisons. One might therefore conjecture that the effects might have been even greater if masks had been introduced earlier. Prioritize wearing masks indoors and when in close contact with other people, like during group travel or shift meetings. We also employ regional data to inter alia identify control regions. It is especially important to wear a mask when you are indoors with people you do not live with and when you are unable to stay at least 6 feet apart since COVID-19 spreads mainly among people who are in close contact with one another. Individuals in this pioneer region might take the crisis more seriously than in the other areas. By tendency, the treatment effect becomes larger, particularly if we compare Jena only to other regions in Thuringia (to rule out macroregional trends) and to a subsample of larger cities (kreisfreie Städte).
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